Dietary supplements

Question

This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Dietary supplements

Answer 1

Chlorella

Chlorella

Chlorella is a genus of single-cell green algae belonging to the phylum Chlorophyta. It is spherical in shape, about 2 to 10 μm in diameter, and is without flagella. Chlorella contains the green photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll-a and -b in its chloroplast. Through photosynthesis, it multiplies rapidly, requiring only carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and a small amount of minerals to reproduce.

The name Chlorella is taken from the Greek χλώρος, chloros, meaning green, and the Latin diminutive suffix ella, meaning small. German biochemist and cell physiologist Otto Heinrich Warburg, awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1931 for his research on cell respiration, also studied photosynthesis in Chlorella. In 1961, Melvin Calvin of the University of California received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research on the pathways of carbon dioxide assimilation in plants using Chlorella.

Many people believe Chlorella can serve as a potential source of food and energy because its photosynthetic efficiency can, in theory, reach 8%, which exceeds that of other highly efficient crops such as sugar cane.

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Answer 2

Chondroitin sulfate

Chondroitin sulfate is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) composed of a chain of alternating sugars (N-acetylgalactosamine and glucuronic acid). It is usually found attached to proteins as part of a proteoglycan. A chondroitin chain can have over 100 individual sugars, each of which can be sulfated in variable positions and quantities. Chondroitin sulfate is an important structural component of cartilage and provides much of its resistance to compression. Along with glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate has become a widely used dietary supplement for treatment of osteoarthritis.

Although chondroitin is used in dietary supplements as an alternative medicine to treat osteoarthritis and also approved and regulated as a symptomatic slow-acting drug for this disease (SYSADOA) in Europe and some other countries, it is technically neither a medicine nor a disease-modifying treatment. See Clinical effects below. It is commonly sold together with glucosamine. Chondroitin and glucosamine are also used in veterinary medicine. Formulated with collagen and wound dressing matrix, one product that uses chondroitin sulfate is the veterinary wound gel Chondroprotec, which is applied over scrapes, burns, and lesions and serves to keep the wound moist and promote healing.

Chondroitin, along with commonly used glucosamine, should not be used to treat patients who have symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee as evidence shows that these treatments fail to provide relief for that condition.

Clinical studies have not identified any significant side effects or overdoses of chondroitin sulfate, which suggest its long-term safety. The Task Force of the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) committee recently granted chondroitin sulfate a level of toxicity of 6 in a 0-100 scale, confirming it is one of the safest drugs for osteoarthritis. Moreover, its safety is supported by an absence of drug-drug interactions (chondroitin sulfate is not metabolized by ), and the lack of safe alternatives for patients multi-medicated for osteoarthritis and other accompanying diseases, e.g. diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, etc.

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Answer 3

Chlorophyllin

Chlorophyllin

Chlorophyllin refers to any one of a group of closely related water-soluble salts that are semi-synthetic derivatives of chlorophyll, differing in the identity of the cations associated with the anion. Its most common form is a sodium/copper derivative used as a food additive and in alternative medicine. Chlorophyll is present in green leafy vegetables and reaching levels as high as 5.7% in spinach. As a food coloring agent, copper complex chlorophyllin is known as natural green 3 and has the E number E141.

Because chlorophyll does not dissolve in water, food sources of chlorophyll do not bind to mutagenic substances to a significant extent. Chlorophyllin, being water-soluble, can significantly bind to environmental mutagens such as the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons benzo[a]pyrene and dibenzo{a,i}pyrene. Chlorophyllin binds to mutagens twenty times better than resveratrol and thousands of times better than xanthines.

Chlorophyllin is the active ingredient in a number of internally taken preparations intended to reduce odors associated with incontinence, colostomies and similar procedures, as well as body odor in general. It is also available as a topical preparation, purportedly useful for both treatment and odor control of wounds, injuries, and other skin conditions—notably radiation burns.

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Answer 4

Choline

Choline

Choline (/ˈkoʊliːn/) is a water-soluble vitamin. The term cholines refers to the class of quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation (X^− on the right denotes an undefined counteranion).

The cation appears in the head groups of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, two classes of phospholipid that are abundant in cell membranes. Choline is the precursor molecule for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is involved in many functions including memory and muscle control.

Some animals cannot produce choline, but must consume it through their diet to remain healthy. Humans make choline in the liver. Whether dietary or supplemental choline is beneficial or harmful to humans is undefined. Possible dangers include increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer, while possible benefits include reducing the risk of neural tube defects and fatty liver disease.

According to the US Institute of Medicine, there is not enough evidence to establish a Recommended Daily Intake for choline. The Australian and New Zealand national nutrition bodies note that while deficiency has been seen during experiments, there have been no reports of choline deficiency in the general population. All three have published an "Adequate Intake" value, discussed below. The European Union's food safety authority says there are no Recommended Daily Intakes in the EU and "no indications of inadequate choline intakes available in the EU".

Methionine and folate are known to interact with choline while homocysteine is undergoing methylation to produce methionine. Recent studies have shown that choline deficiency may have adverse effects, even when sufficient amounts of methionine and folate are present.

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Answer 5

Chromium(III) picolinate

Chromium(III) picolinate

Chromium(III) picolinate (CrPic₃) is a chemical compound sold as a nutritional supplement to treat type 2 diabetes and promote weight loss. This bright-red coordination compound is derived from chromium(III) and picolinic acid. Small quantities of chromium are needed for glucose utilization by insulin in normal health, but deficiency is extremely rare and has only been observed in hospital patients on long-term defined diets. Chromium has been identified to regulate insulin by increasing the sensitivity of the insulin receptor. As such, chromium(III) picolinate has been used as a treatment for type 2 diabetes, although its effectiveness remains controversial due to conflicting and/or poorly carried out clinical studies. Chromium(III) picolinate has been described as a "poor [...] nutritional supplement".

A study in 1989 suggested that chromium(III) picolinate may assist in weight loss and increase muscle mass which led to an increase in the usage of chromium(III) picolinate supplements, making it the second most widely used supplement behind Ca²⁺ supplements. This claim has been disproven by a Cochrane review in 2013. Research has generally shown that it improves insulin sensitivity by either prolonging its activity or up-regulating the production of mRNA to produce more insulin receptors.

Amongst the transition metals, Cr³⁺ is the most controversial in terms of nutritional value and toxicity. This controversy centers on whether Cr³⁺ provides any nutritional benefits given that Cr³⁺ nutritional supplements for humans form the basis of a multimillion-dollar industry with sales second behind Ca-containing products. Furthermore, this controversy is amplified by the fact that no Cr-containing biomolecules have had their structure characterized, nor has the mode of action been determined. The first experiment that led to the discovery of Cr³⁺ playing a role in glucose metabolism proposed that the biologically active form of the metal existed in a protein called glucose tolerance factor, however, new evidence suggests that it is simply an artifact obtained from isolation procedures. The only accepted indicator of chromium deficiency is the reversal of symptoms that occurs when chromium(III) supplementation is administered to hospital patients that were on total parenteral nutrition (which lacked chromium(III)) for an extensive period of time.

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Answer 6

Clif Bar

Clif Bar & Co.

Clif Bar & Company is an American company that produces organic foods and drinks. The company's flagship product, CLIF Bar, was created by Gary Erickson. The company is based in Emeryville, California and is privately held. In April 2013, Kevin Cleary was named CEO of the company; CFO Boragno; co-owners Erickson and Kit Crawford became co-chief visionary officers.

A baker and former mountain guide, Erickson got the idea for his product in 1990 on a day-long, 175 mile bike ride, for which he packed a variety of energy bars. Two years later after experimenting in his mother's kitchen, he settled on a recipe for what would become the CLIF Bar. Erickson tried several ventures—including Forza, Torque, and Gary's Bar—before settling on CLIF Bar, named after his father Clifford. The packaging image of a rock climber was first drawn by a friend on a napkin over dinner in San Francisco. At a September 1991 bike show, Erickson debuted three flavors: double chocolate, apricot, and date oatmeal. In its first year, sales of CLIF Bar exceeded $700,000, fueled primarily by strong sales in bike shops and the growth of the healthy and natural foods movement. Sales doubled each year, and by 1997, revenue surpassed $20 million. In 1997, the company name was changed from Kali's SportNaturals to Clif Bar & Company. In 2010 the company moved into a new headquarters in the EmeryTech Building in Emeryville, California. Designed by ZGF Architects LLP, the former manufacturing plant earned Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Platinum status. The building was repurposed and sustainably-designed with photovoltaic panels, solar thermal panels, reclaimed wood, plants and other biophilic features.

In March 1999, Clif Bar introduced LUNA Bar, which was specifically marketed towards women. In April 2000, Erickson turned down a $120 million offer from Quaker Oats to buy the company.

Clif Bar & Company was ranked the No. 1 brand in the Forbes "Breakaway Brands" survey, conducted by Landor Associates using Young & Rubicam's BrandAsset Valuator database measuring brand momentum from 2006 to 2009.

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Answer 7

Chromium(III) nicotinate

Chromium(III) nicotinate

Chromium(III) nicotinate is an ionic substance used for chromium supplementation in some nutritional products, where it is also referred to as chromium polynicotinate. It appears in products that are referred to as a medical food used for nutritional support for conditions associated with diabetes mellitus type 2. The product is also known as "niacin-bound chromium".

Chromium(III) nicotinate contains three nicotinic acid units per chromium ion; that is, it is the trinicotinate of chromium(III). The substance that is used in supplements and called "chromium polynicotinate" is said to be a mixture of the trinicotinate and the dinicotinate, with the former dominating.

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Answer 8

Clinical trials on glucosamine and chondroitin

There is a history of clinical research done on glycosaminoglycans, especially glucosamine and chondroitin, for the treatment of arthritis. Since glucosamine is a precursor for glycosaminoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans are major components of cartilage, ingesting glucosamine might nourish joints, and thereby alleviate arthritis symptoms.

Some of the evidence for the effectiveness of glucosamine is disputed. A 2008–2009 review of all known studies of glucosamine supplements for horses, for example, found that almost all studies had failed to meet usual standards and were fatally compromised by basic errors in their execution, including failure to test whether active ingredients were as stated, lack of adequate (or any) control groups or baseline measurements, very small sample sizes, and ignoring prior research or self-evident omissions. The authors highlighted confirmation bias as a significant issue in such studies, in that most studies were undertaken by manufacturers, on products they already produced commercially, and they were usually undertaken to support claims of benefits which could be used to market the product. More recently, other reviews found little evidence that glucosamine and chondroitin supplements were any better than a placebo or at most only slightly better.

Glucosamine sulfate may be efficacious in ways that glucosamine hydrochloride is not. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International advises arthritis sufferers to discontinue glucosamine therapy if they notice no benefit within six months and the National Institute of Clinical Excellence no longer recommends its use. Despite the difficulty in determining the efficacy of glucosamine, it remains a viable treatment option. Similar trials have been done with chondroitin.

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Answer 9

Cod liver oil

Cod liver oil is a nutritional supplement derived from liver of cod fish (Gadidae). As with most fish oils, it has high levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D. It has historically been taken because of its vitamin A and vitamin D content. It was once commonly given to children, because vitamin D has been shown to prevent rickets and other symptoms of vitamin D deficiency.

Cod liver oil has traditionally come in many grades. Cod liver oil for human consumption is pale and straw colored, with a mild flavor. Ancient Scandinavian Vikings produced cod liver oil by laying birch tree branches over a kettle of water, and fresh livers were laid over the branches. The water was brought to a boil and as the steam rose, the oil from the liver dripped into the water and was skimmed off. There was also a method for producing fresh raw cod liver oil.

In the Industrial Revolution, cod liver oil became popular for industrial purposes. Livers placed in barrels to rot, with the oil skimmed off over the season, was the main method for producing this oil. The resulting oil was brown and foul tasting. In the 1800s cod liver oil became popular as a medicine and both pale and brown oils were used. Brown oils were common because they were cheaper to produce. Some doctors believed in only using the fresh pale oil, while others believed the brown oil was better. However the brown oils tended to cause intestinal upset.

The Möller Process was invented by Peter Möller in 1850. The livers are ground with water into a slurry, then this is gently simmered until the oil rises to the top. The oil is skimmed off and purified.

Other methods used in modern times include the Cold Flotation Process, Pressure Extraction, and Pressure Cooking. These all require further purification steps to get a pure oil.

Fermented Cod Liver Oil is made using a trade secret process, but is thought to be similar to the method to produce brown oil in the 1700s and 1800s. Testing has shown FCLO has high levels of free fatty acids and a high acid value, indicating possible prolonged rancidity. However, free fatty acids and acid value may not be the correct marker to reflect the oxidation level of this product.

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Answer 10

Colostrinin

Colostrinin (also known as CLN, proline-rich polypeptides or PRP) is a naturally occurring mixture of proline-rich polypeptides derived from colostrum.

Colostrinin was originally identified by scientists working in Poland in the 1970s. Colostrinin is derived from colostrum, which is present in the pre-milk fluid produced from mammary glands in the first few days after parturition. It is also known as proline-rich polypeptides, since sequence analysis of the peptides present in this mixture reveals an unusually high proportion of this amino acid residue. The amino acid compositions of Colostrinin from ovine, bovine, and human colostrum are very similar. Colostrinin was first characterized in animal and in-vitro studies as a substance that generally stimulates the immune response. Such an immunomodulatory action may be important in the treatment of a variety of diseases and is consistent with the beneficial effect of colostrum in promoting the development of the immune system in newborn mammals.

Colostrinin is obtained from bovine colostrum by alcohol extraction and filtration. A patented method outlines the steps that can be used to produce this substance on an industrial scale. In this method, an alcohol, such as ethanol or methanol, is used to create an alcohol phase. This phase is enriched with the peptide fraction, from which Colostrinin is recovered and purified.

Colostrinin is incompletely defined chemically. Initially, it was assumed to consist of a single protein with a molecular weight of approximately 17 to 18 kDa. However, subsequent studies showed that Colostrinin largely consists of a mixture of at least 32 peptides ranging in size from 0.5 to 3 kDa. Most of the peptides appear to be derived from proteolytic processing of the milk proteins β-casein and a β-casein homolog. Whether non-peptide components of the mixture contribute to the biological activity is unknown. However, the biological activity of Colostrinin does seem to be due to more than one of the components, since its effects cannot be completely mimicked by any one of the peptide components tested so far.

PRP-rich preparations from bovine colostrum have shown possible efficacy against various illnesses including neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's), viral infections, and ailments characterized by an overactive immune system, such as allergies, asthma and autoimmune diseases. Some recent research has also indicated possible efficacy in combating obesity. Colostrinin’s potential as a cognitive enhancer is fairly well-documented.

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