Nutrition

Question

This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Nutrition

Answer 1

Health effects of tea

According to legend, the health effects of tea have been examined ever since the first infusions of Camellia sinensis about 4700 years ago in China. Emperor Shennong claimed in The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic that Camellia sinensis infusions were useful for treating a variety of disease conditions.

Historically as well as today, in regions without access to safe drinking water, the boiling of water to make tea has been effective in reducing waterborne diseases by destroying pathogenic microorganisms. Recently, concerns have been raised about the traditional method of over-boiling tea to produce a decoction, which may increase the amount of pesticides and other harmful contaminants released and consumed.

Black tea has been studied extensively for its potential to lower the risk of human diseases, but none of this research is conclusive as of 2015.

Tea drinking accounts for a high proportion of aluminum in the human diet. The levels are safe, but there has been some concern that aluminum traces may be associated with Alzheimer's disease. A recent study additionally indicated that some teas contained possibly risky amounts of lead (mostly Chinese) and aluminum (Indian/Sri Lanka blends, China). There is still insufficient evidence to draw firm conclusions on this subject.

Most studies have found no association between tea intake and iron absorption. However, drinking excessive amounts of black tea may inhibit the absorption of iron, and may harm people with anaemia.

All tea leaves contain fluoride; however, mature leaves contain as much as 10 to 20 times the fluoride levels of young leaves from the same plant.

The fluoride content of made tea depends on the picking method and fluoride content of the soil in which it is grown; tea plants absorb this element at a greater rate than other plants. Care in the choice of the location where the plant is grown may reduce the risk. It is speculated that hand-picked tea would contain less fluoride than machine-harvested tea, because there is a much lower chance of harvesting older leaves during the harvest process. A 2013 British study of 38 teas found that cheaper UK supermarket tea blends had the highest levels of fluoride with about 580 mg per kilogram, green teas averaged about 397 mg per kg and pure blends about 132 mg per kg. The researchers suggested that economy teas may use older leaves which contain more fluoride. They calculated a person drinking a litre of economy tea per day would consume about 4 mg of fluoride, the maximum recommended amount of fluoride per day but below the maximum tolerable amount of 10 mg fluoride per day.

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Answer 2

Hemp protein

Hemp protein is the protein content of hemp seeds, made up of 35% albumin and 65% edestin, both being globulin types of protein. Hemp protein has a PDCAAS score of 0.61 (the limiting amino acid being lysine, with a digestibility of 94.9% and a biological value of 87.

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Answer 3

History of USDA nutrition guides

The history of USDA nutrition guides includes over 100 years of American nutrition advice. The guides have been updated over time, to adopt new scientific findings and new public health marketing techniques. Over time they have described from 4 to 11 food groups. Various guides have been criticized as not accurately representing scientific information about optimal nutrition, and as being overly influenced by the agricultural industries the USDA promotes.

The USDA's first nutrition guidelines were published in 1894 by Dr. Wilbur Olin Atwater as a farmers' bulletin. In Atwater's 1904 publication titled Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food, he advocated variety, proportionality and moderation; measuring calories; and an efficient, affordable diet that focused on nutrient-rich foods and less fat, sugar and starch. This information preceded the discovery of individual vitamins beginning in 1910.

A new guide in 1916, Food for Young Children by nutritionist Caroline Hunt, categorized foods into milk and meat; cereals; vegetables and fruits; fats and fatty foods; and sugars and sugary foods. How to Select Food in 1917 promoted these five food groups to adults, and the guidelines remained in place through the 1920s. In 1933, the USDA introduced food plans at four different cost levels in response to the Great Depression.

In 1941, the first Recommended Dietary Allowances were created, listing specific intakes for calories, protein, iron, calcium, and vitamins A, B₁, B₂ B₃, C and D.

In 1943, during World War II, The USDA introduced a nutrition guide promoting the "Basic 7" food groups to help maintain nutritional standards under wartime food rationing. The Basic 7 food groups were:

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Answer 4

Holozoic nutrition

Holozoic nutrition (Greek: holo-whole ; zoikos-of animals) is a type of heterotrophic nutrition that is characterized by the internalization (ingestion) and internal processing of liquids or solid food particles.Protozoa, such as amoebas, and most of the free living animals, such as humans, exhibit this type of nutrition.

In Holozoic nutrition, energy and organic building blocks are obtained by ingesting and then digesting other organisms or pieces of other organisms, including blood and decaying organic matter. This contrasts with holophytic nutrition, in which energy and organic building blocks are obtained through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, and with saprozoic nutrition, in which digestive enzymes are released externally and the resulting monomers (small organic molecules) are absorbed directly from the environment.

There are several stages of holozoic nutrition, which often occur in separate compartments within an organism (such as the stomach and intestines):

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Answer 5

Human nutrition

Human nutrition refers to the provision of essential nutrients necessary to support human life and health. Generally, people can survive up to 40 days without food, a period largely depending on the amount of water consumed, stored body fat, muscle mass and genetic factors.

Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, poor nutrition understanding and practices, and deficient sanitation and food security.Malnutrition and its consequences are immense contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide. Promoting good nutrition helps children grow, promotes human development and eradication of poverty.

The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All the chemical compounds and elements contained in the human body occur in various forms and combinations such as hormones, vitamins, phospholipids and hydroxyapatite. These compounds may be found in the human body as well as in the various types of organisms that humans consume.

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Answer 6

Human milk oligosaccharide

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are a family of structurally diverse unconjugated glycans that are found in and unique to human breast milk, despite not actually being digestible by human infants. HMOs function as a prebiotic helping to establish commensal bacteria. HMOs also function as anti-adhesives that help prevent the attachment of microbial pathogens to mucosal surfaces.

HMOs have been implicated in modulating responses of the epithelium and of the immune cells, reducing excessive mucosal leukocyte infiltration and activation, and lowering the risk for necrotizing enterocolitis and possibly also providing the infant with sialic acid as a potentially essential nutrient for brain development and cognition.

In experiments designed to test the suitability of HMOs as a prebiotic source of carbon for intestinal bacteria it was discovered that they are highly selective for a commensal bacteria known as Bifidobacteria longum biovar infantis. The presence of genes unique to B. infantis, including co-regulated glycosidases, and its efficiency at using HMOs as a carbon source may imply a co-evolution of HMOs and the genetic capability of select bacteria to utilize them.

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Answer 7

Simon Howard

Simon John Howard is a public health physician working in the North East of England. He has authored or co-authored a number of articles on public health in medical journals, and served as Public Health Registrar to Chief Medical Officer Sally Davies from 2013-2014, acting as Editor-in-Chief of the 2012 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer.

Howard qualified as a medical doctor with the degree MBBS from Newcastle University in 2008. He was awarded an MSc in Public Health and Health Services Research from Newcastle University in 2011.

He has authored and co-authored articles which criticise current nutritional labelling practices in the UK, and on topics related to respiratory, and ophthalmic health. From 2013-2014, Howard served as Public Health Registrar to Chief Medical Officer Sally Davies, and acted as Editor-in-Chief of the 2012 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer. He has contributed to or co-authored a number of other works with Davies.

In 2012, Howard co-wrote a study in the British Medical Journal that compared the nutritional content of television chefs' recipes and supermarket meals. The study found that the chefs' meals were "less healthy" than ready-made supermarket meals. The article received considerable coverage in the news media, while some scholars criticised the assumption that "health ought to prominently inform TV cooking."

In 2010, Howard re-published a compilation of his political blog posts in a book titled Instant Opinion.

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Answer 8

Insulin index

The Insulin Index of a food represents how much it elevates the concentration of insulin in the blood during the two-hour period after the food is ingested. The index is similar to the Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL), but rather than relying on blood glucose levels, the Insulin Index is based upon blood insulin levels. The Insulin Index represents a comparison of food portions with equal overall caloric content (250 kcal or 1000 kJ), while GI represents a comparison of portions with equal digestible carbohydrate content (typically 50 g) and the GL represents portions of a typical serving size for various foods. The Insulin Index can be more useful than either the Glycemic Index or the Glycemic Load because certain foods (e.g., lean meats and proteins) cause an insulin response despite there being no carbohydrates present, and some foods cause a disproportionate insulin response relative to their carbohydrate load.

Holt et al. have noted that the glucose and insulin scores of most foods are highly correlated, but high-protein foods and bakery products that are rich in fat and refined carbohydrates "elicit insulin responses that were disproportionately higher than their glycemic responses." They also conclude that insulin indices may be useful for dietary management and avoidance of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia.

The Insulin Index is not the same as a glycemic index (GI), which is based exclusively on the digestible carbohydrate content of a food, and represents a comparison of foods in amounts with equal digestible carbohydrate content (typically 50 g). The insulin index compares foods in amounts with equal overall caloric content (250 kcal or 1000 kJ). Insulin indexes are scaled relative to white bread, while glycemic index scores nowadays are usually scaled with respect to pure glucose, although in the past white bread has been a reference point for GI measurements as well. In the chart below, glycemic and insulin scores show the increase in the blood concentration of each. A higher satiety score indicates how much less was eaten from a buffet after participants ate the listed food.

Glucose (glycemic) and insulin scores were determined by feeding 1000 kilojoules (239 kilocalories) of the food to the participants and recording the area under the glucose/insulin curve for 120 minutes then dividing by the area under the glucose/insulin curve for white bread. The result being that all scores are relative to white bread. The satiety score was determined by comparing how satiated participants felt within two hours after being fed a fixed number of calories (240 kilocalories) of a particular food while blindfolded (to ensure food appearance was not a factor), then dividing that number by how satiated the participants felt after eating white bread. White bread serves as the baseline of 100. In other words, foods scoring higher than 100 are more satisfying than white bread and those under 100 are less satisfying. The satiety score was negatively correlated to the amount eaten by participants at a subsequent buffet.

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Answer 9

Interesterified fat

Interesterified fat is a type of oil where the fatty acids have been moved from one triglyceride molecule to another. This is generally done to modify the melting point, slow rancidification and create an oil more suitable for deep frying or making margarine with good taste and low saturated fat content. It is not the same as partial hydrogenation which produces trans fatty acids, but interesterified fats used in the food industry can come from hydrogenated fat, for simplicity and frugality.

Fats such as soybean oil consist mainly of various triglycerides which are made up of a glycerol backbone esterified to three fatty acid molecules. The triglycerides contain a mixture of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Interesterification is carried out by blending the desired oils and then rearranging the fatty acids over the glycerol backbone with, for instance, the help of catalysts or lipase enzymes.Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) decrease the melting point of fats significantly. A triglyceride containing three saturated fatty acids is generally solid at room temperature and not very desirable for many applications. Rearranging these triglycerides with oils containing unsaturated fatty acids lowers the melting point and creates fats with properties better suited for target food products. In addition, blending interesterified oils with liquid oils allows the reduction in saturated fatty acids in many trans fatty acid free food products. The interesterified fats can be separated through controlled crystallization, also called fractionation.

In vegetable polyunsaturated oils, the PUFA is commonly found at the middle position (sn2) on the glycerol. Stearic acid is not usually found at sn2 in vegetable oils used in the human diet.

In most vegetable dietary fats, palmitic (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) mainly occupy the 1- and 3-positions of the triacylglycerol molecule, whereas an unsaturated fatty acid such as oleic acid (18:1ω9) or linoleic acid (18:2ω6) usually occupies the 2-position. In animal fats, this is not the case. Interesterification of vegetable oils will enhance the amount of saturated fatty acids at the 2-position. Fatty acids at the 2-position are biologically different from fatty acids at the 1 and 3 position because they are handled differently during digestion and metabolism, and a relevant scientific question is whether there are health effects following from this. Although this question has received relatively little attention in dietary fats and health research, there are a number of good controlled human intervention studies that have addressed it.

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Answer 10

International Union of Nutritional Sciences

The International Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS) is an international non-governmental organization established in 1948 to devote the advancement of nutrition. Since its 1948 foundation, the membership has grown to include 82 national adhering bodies and 16 affiliations.

The Council consists of 5 Officers, the President, President-Elect, Vice-President, Secretary-General, Treasurer, Immediate Past-President, and six Council members. IUNS's current council consists of the following: - President: Anna Lartey Ghana; - Vice President: V. Prakash India; - President Elect: Alfredo Martinez Hernandez Spain; - Secretary General: Catherine Geissler UK; - Treasurer: Helmut Heseker Germany; - Member: Lynette Neufeld Canada; - Member: S. K. Roy Bangladesh; - Member: Godwin D. Ndossi Tanzania; - Member: Andrew Prentice UK; - Member: Teruo Miyazawa Japan; - Member: Reynaldo Martorell United States - Immediate Past-President: Ibrahim Elmadfa Austria; - Immediate Past Secretary General: Rekia Belahsen Morocco;

IUNS is registered in Vienna, Austria.

IUNS; The Nutrition Society; 10 Cambridge Court; 210 Shepherds Bush Road; London; UK; W6 7NJ

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