Nutrition

Question

This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Nutrition

Answer 1

Body volume index

The Body Volume Index (BVI) is a new measurement for obesity, proposed as an alternative and enhancement to the body mass index (BMI).

People of different age, gender or ethnicity will have different body shapes, with different weight distribution and recent studies have highlighted the limitations of BMI as an indicator of individual health risk.

BVI was originally devised in February 2000 and looks at the relationship between mass and volume distribution (i.e. where weight is distributed on the body); a new, modern-day measurement for measuring obesity; an alternative to the BMI, originally conceived between 1830 and 1850.

The data needed to calculate a person's BVI originally relied on data collection from 3D Scanners, equipped with several cameras to capture the dimensions of different parts of a person's body. By December 2016, over 400,000 men, women and children had been measured using this 3D technology, originally developed to measure body circumferences for retail clothing fit. The measurement extraction software has now been configured to develop part volume and body composition measurement for healthcare in 3D.

A 10-year program of research and development has been undertaken; the Body Volume Index uses an algorithm based on MRI data and detailed Body Composition data to make an inference as to the body's distribution of weight and the distribution of muscle and fat.

Based on height and weight, BMI was originally conceived between 1830 and 1850 by a Belgian polymath called Adolphe Quetelet. BMI uses these measurements to determine whether a person is carrying an appropriate amount of weight for an average person of their height. The Body Mass Index or BMI is a measurement that has been used by healthcare professionals to aid diagnosis of obese and under-weight people for many years and has become a standard worldwide for the assessment of risk and for population statistics.

BVI allows for differentiation between people who have been assigned the same BMI rating, but who have a different body shape and weight distribution. Specifically, BVI divides the 3D body image of a person into 7 distinct sections; Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis, Right Arm, Left arm, Right Leg, Left Leg. The Head, Hands and feet are specifically excluded as extra weight or fat in these areas are not considered to be a risk to general health. After primary development, initial validation was undertaken by Heartlands Hospital, an NHS Obesity, Diabetes and Endocrinology Centre in the UK. This was followed by clinical testing in the US by Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. Other organisations such as Aston University, University of Hull, the University of Westminster and the Medical Research Council have also been involved in research and development program.

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Answer 2

John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr

John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr

John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr CH, DSO, MC, FRS (23 September 1880 – 25 June 1971), known as Sir John Boyd Orr from 1935 to 1949, was a Scottish teacher, doctor, biologist and politician who received the Nobel Peace Prize for his scientific research into nutrition and his work as the first Director-General of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). He was the co-founder and the first President (1960–1971) of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS).

John Boyd Orr was born at Kilmaurs, near Kilmarnock, East Ayrshire, Scotland, the middle child in a family of seven children. His father, Robert Clark Orr, was a quarry owner, and a man of deep religious convictions, being a member of the Free Church of Scotland. His mother, Annie Boyd, was the daughter of another quarry master, wealthier than Robert Orr, and grandmaster of a Freemason's Lodge.

The family home was well supplied with books, and his father was widely read in political, sociological and metaphysical subjects, as well as religion. As he grew older, John would regularly discuss these subjects with his father, brothers, and visiting friends. There was also family worship each evening.

When John was five years old, the family suffered a setback when a ship owned by Robert Orr was lost at sea. They had to sell their home in Kilmaurs, and moved to West Kilbride, a village on the North Ayrshire coast. According to Kay, the new house and environment were a great improvement on Kilmaurs, despite the family's reduced means. The major part of his upbringing took place in and around West Kilbride. He attended the village school until he was thirteen. Religion was then an important part of junior education in Scotland, and the school gave him a good knowledge of the Bible, which stayed with him for the rest of his life.

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Answer 3

Callanetics

The Callanetics exercise programme was created by Callan Pinckney in the early 1980s. It is a system of exercise involving frequent repetition of small muscular movements and squeezes, designed to improve muscle tone. The programme was developed by Pinckney from classical ballet exercises, to help ease a back problem that she was born with.

The theory of callanetics is that the surface muscles of the body are supported by deeper muscles, but popular exercise programmes often exercise only the surface muscles. According to callanetics, deeper muscles are best exercised using small but precise movements. Exercising the deeper muscles also leads to improved posture, which may result in the appearance of weight loss even if very little weight was lost.

Pinckney also recommends exercising with clothing that highlights (not flatters) the body's natural shape, and exercising in bright light, to show up the body's imperfections to the exerciser.

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Answer 4

A calorie is a calorie

"A calorie is a calorie" is a tautology used to convey the speaker's conviction that the concept of the "calorie" is in fact a sufficient way to describe energy content of food.

It has been a commonly cited truism since the early 1960s. The tautological phrase means that regardless of the form of food calorie a person consumes (whether a carbohydrate, protein or fat calorie) the energy chemically extracted from the food, or the work necessary to burn such a calorie, is identical to any other. One dietary calorie contains 4.184 kilojoules of energy. With this knowledge, it is easy to assume that all calories have equal value.

In 1878, German nutritionist Max Rubner crafted what he called the "isodynamic law". The law claims that the basis of nutrition is the exchange of energy, and was applied to the study of obesity in the early 1900s by Carl von Noorden. Von Noorden had two theories about what caused people to develop obesity. The first simply avowed Rubner's notion that "a calorie is a calorie". The second theorized that obesity development depends on how the body partitions calories for either use or storage. Since 1925, a calorie has been defined in terms of the joule. The definition of a calorie changed in 1948, which became one calorie is equal to approximately 4.2 joules.

The related concept of "calorie in, calorie out" is contested and despite having become a commonly held and frequently referenced belief in nutritionism, the implications associated with "a calorie is a calorie" are still being debated. The wisdom and effects of skipping meals in an attempt to limit caloric intake is also still largely debated.

Calorie amounts found on food labels are based on the Atwater system. The accuracy of the system is disputed, despite no real proposed alternatives. For example, a 2012 study by a USDA scientist concluded that the measured energy content of a sample of almonds was 32% lower than the estimated Atwater value. Furthermore, it is known that some calories are lost in waste, without ever having been chemically converted or stored. The driving mechanism behind caloric intake is absorption, which occurs largely in the small intestine and distributes nutrients to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries by means of osmosis, diffusion and active transport. Fat, in particular is emulsified by bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder where it is released to the small intestine via the bile duct. A relatively lesser amount of absorption, composed primarily of water, occurs in the large intestine.

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Answer 5

Canadian health claims

Canadian health claims by Health Canada, the department of the Canadian Government responsible for national health, has allowed five scientifically verified disease risk reduction claims to be used on food labels and on food advertising. Other countries, including the United States and Great Britain, have approved similar health claims on food labels.

The Food Directorate of Health Canada is responsible for the development of policies, regulations and standards that relate to the use of health claims on foods. They assess whether health claims are truthful and not misleading by reviewing mandatory and voluntary pre-market submissions. Health Claims are regulated under the Food and Drugs Act and the Food and Drug Regulations. The Section 5(1) of the Food and Drugs Act requires that all health claims be truthful and not misleading or deceptive. The regulatory requirements permitting the use of claims vary significantly depending on the nature and type of the claim. Some claims may be made without pre-market approval provided they are truthful and not misleading or deceptive, whereas other claims, such as disease risk reduction or therapeutic claims are only allowed once a regulatory amendment specifying the conditions for their use has been completed

Manufacturers are responsible for the accuracy of all information on the labels and advertisements for food and for compliance with all relevant food legislation and policies, including those pertaining to health claims. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is responsible for ensuring that industry complies with these requirements

Food claims express the composition, quality, quantity or origin of a food product. Examples of Food Claims are "made in Canada" "Home-style Chilli" and "Fresh Pasta."

Nutrition (nutrient content) claims characterizes the energy value of the food or the amount of a nutrient contained in a food. It provides a quick and easy way to identify foods with specific nutritional features of interest. Examples of nutrition claims are "low in sodium" sodium free" and "100 Calories per serving."

Health claims is any representation in labeling or advertising that states, suggests, or implies that a relationship exists between consumption of a food or an ingredient in the food and a person's health.

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Answer 6

Carbohydrate digestion

All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is taken up much faster than fructose. Monosaccharide transport saturates with D-glucose at 30 mM.

Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine.

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Answer 7

CAP-e

CAP-e (cell-based antioxidant protection in erythrocytes), is a novel in vitro bioassay for antioxidant activity developed by Alexander Schauss, Gitte Jensen, and associates at the American Institute for Biosocial and Medical Research (AIBMR), a private contract research organization (CRO) located in Puyallup, Washington, and Holger NIS, a private CRO located in Klamath Falls, Oregon.

The CAP-e assay is performed by first incubating red blood cells (erythrocytes) with a test sample at a range of concentrations. The cells are then combined with dichloro fluorescein diacetate (DCFDA), which is oxidized in the presence of free radicals to form a green fluorescent byproduct (DCF). In the next step of the assay, exogenous hydrogen peroxide is added at a concentration of 167 mM to artificially induce severe oxidative stress. The antioxidant activity of varying concentrations of the test compound is measured based on the degree of inhibition of DCF-fluorescence, which is an indirect and nonspecific measure of reactive oxygen species production. To date, the assay has been used in 2 published studies, both conducted by AIBMR and Holger NIS.

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Answer 8

Carbohydrate counting

Carbohydrate counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it.

Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.

Carbohydrate is found in a number of foods including fruits, starchy vegetables (such as peas, potatoes, and corn), grains, milk and yogurt, legumes, and desserts. In general, foods such as meat, eggs, cheese, fats, and non-starchy vegetables (such as greens and broccoli) have little to no carbohydrate. Other foods free of carbohydrate include small quantities of certain condiments, unsweetened coffee and tea, and sugar free sodas.

Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.

Carbohydrate counting can be used with or without insulin therapy.

When carbohydrate counting is used without insulin, it can be used as a tool to manage blood sugar levels. A certain number of carbohydrate grams or carbohydrate units is consumed with each meal and with each snack. In keeping the carbohydrate at a certain level, the blood sugar is able to remain within a normal level. The American Diabetes Association recommends starting at around 45-60 carbohydrate grams (3-4 carb units) at each meal, with potential to increase or decrease that amount.

Carbohydrate counting may be used with either a fixed insulin dosage or with a more flexible insulin dosage. Carb counting for fixed insulin dosage is done in the same manner as carbohydrate counting without insulin. The only difference is that insulin is administered with the meal. With more flexible insulin dosage, the insulin is administered in regards to the amount of carbohydrate consumed. The insulin amount will vary based on the amount of carbohydrates consumed.

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Answer 9

Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula C_m(H₂O)_n (where m could be different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C₅H₁₀O₄. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose.

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Answer 10

Chelates in animal nutrition

Chelates ( che·late ) [kee-leyt] in animal feed are organic forms of essential trace minerals such as copper, iron, manganese and zinc.

Animals absorb, digest and use mineral chelates better than inorganic minerals. This means that lower concentrations can be used in animal feeds. In addition, animals fed chelated sources of essential trace minerals excrete lower amounts in their faeces, and so there is less environmental contamination. Mineral chelates also offers health and welfare benefits in animal nutrition

Since the 1950s, animal feeds have been supplemented with essential trace minerals such as copper (Cu), iron (Fe), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn). Initially, such supplementation was by means of inorganic salts of essential trace elements. From the 1960s onwards, genetic improvement of farm livestock resulted in increased nutritional requirements for these nutrients. Chelated minerals were developed in the 1980s and 1990s. Trace mineral chelates have proven to be better than inorganic minerals in meeting the nutritional needs of modern farm animals.

The objective of supplementation with trace minerals is to avoid a variety of deficiency diseases. Trace minerals carry out key functions in relation to many metabolic processes, most notably as catalysts for enzymes and hormones, and are essential for optimum health, growth and productivity. For example, supplementary minerals help ensure good growth, bone development, feathering in birds, hoof, skin and hair quality in mammals, enzyme structure and functions, and appetite. Deficiency of trace minerals affect many metabolic processes and so may be manifested by different symptoms, such as poor growth and appetite, reproductive failures, impaired immune responses, and general ill-thrift. From the 1950s to the 1990s most trace mineral supplementation of animal diets was in the form of inorganic minerals, and these largely eradicated associated deficiency diseases in farm animals.

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