Nutrition

Question

This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Nutrition

Answer 1

Reference Intakes

Reference Intakes (RIs) are a means of communicating maximum recommended nutrient intake to the public. Reference Intakes replaced the term Guideline Daily Amount (GDA), although the principles behind both are the same. The major difference is that GDAs existed for men, women and children; there is only one set of RIs for an average adult.

The values for the nutrients are all maximums, not targets. The information is for guidance only and should not be considered individual advice.

The change from GDA to RI on labels on pre-packaged food and drinks sold in the UK is due to a European Regulation. The intention of the EU Regulation is to harmonise across Europe the content, expression and presentation of the nutrition information given to consumers.

Since RIs are for an average adult, concerns have been raised by major retailers and manufacturers that they may face criticism for misrepresenting the contribution to the diet of products targeted at children, particularly given concerns around children’s diet and obesity levels.

RIs can be combined with traffic light labeling to make the information easily and rapidly understood.

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Answer 2

Reference Daily Intake

The Reference Daily Intake or Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of healthy individuals in every demographic in the United States. While developed in USA it has been used in other countries though it is not universally accepted.

The RDI is used to determine the Daily Value (DV) of foods, which is printed on nutrition facts labels (as %DV) in the United States and Canada, and is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Health Canada respectively.

The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were a set of nutrition recommendations that evolved into both the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) system of nutrition recommendations (which still defines RDA values) and the RDIs used for food labelling. The first regulations governing U.S. nutrition labels specified a % U.S. RDA declaration based on the current RDA values, which had been published in 1968. Later, the % U.S. RDA was renamed the %DV and the RDA values that the %DVs were based on became the RDIs.

The RDAs (and later the RDA values within the DRI) were regularly revised to reflect the latest scientific information, but although the nutrition labeling regulations were occasionally updated, the existing RDI values were not changed, so that until 2016 many of the DVs used on nutrition facts labels were still based on the outdated RDAs from 1968. In 2016 the Food and Drug Administration published changes to the regulations including updated RDIs and DVs based primarily on the RDAs in the current DRI. Larger manufacturers must start using the new labels by July 26, 2018 and all manufacturers must use the new values from July 26, 2019.

Daily Values used by the FDA for the following macronutrients are Daily Reference Values.

FDA issued a Final Rule on changes to facts panel in 2016. New values can be used on labels now, but companies have until July 28, 2018 to be in compliance. In the interim, products with old or new facts panel content will be on market shelves at same time.

The following table lists the old and new DVs based on a caloric intake of 2000 kcal (8400 kJ), for adults and children four or more years of age.

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Answer 3

Rowett Research Institute

The Rowett Institute for Nutrition and Health is a research centre for studies into food and nutrition, located in Aberdeen, Scotland.

The institute was founded in 1913 when the University of Aberdeen and the North of Scotland College of Agriculture agreed that an "Institute for Research into Animal Nutrition" should be established in Scotland. The first director was John Boyd Orr, later to become Lord Boyd Orr, who moved from Glasgow to "the wilds of Aberdeenshire" in 1914. Orr drew up some plans for a nutrition research institute. Orr also donated £5000 for the building of a granite laboratory building at Craibstone, not far from the Bucksburn site of the Rowett.

At the breakout of the Great War, Orr left the Institute, but returned in 1919 with a staff of four to begin work in the new laboratory. Orr continued to push for a new research institute and finally the Government agreed to pay half the costs but stipulated that the other half was to be found from other sources. The extra money was donated by Dr John Quiller Rowett, a businessman and director of a wine and spirits merchants in London.

Rowett's donation allowed the purchase of 41 acres of land for the Institute to be built on. Rowett also contributed £10,000 towards the cost of the buildings. The money was donated with one very important stipulation from Rowett — "if any work done at the Institute on animal nutrition were found to have a bearing on human nutrition, the Institute would be allowed to follow up this work." The Institute was formally opened in 1922 by Queen Mary.

On 1 July 2008 the Institute merged with the University of Aberdeen to become the Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, College of Life Sciences and Medicine.

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Answer 4

Salt and cardiovascular disease

Salt consumption has been intensely studied for its role in human physiology and impact on human health. In particular, excessive dietary salt consumption over an extended period of time has been associated with hypertension and cardiovascular disease, in addition to other adverse health effects.

Common edible salt is composed of sodium chloride.

The human body has evolved to balance salt intake with need through means such as the renin-angiotensin system. In humans, salt has important biological functions. Relevant to risk of cardiovascular disease, salt is highly involved with the maintenance of body fluid volume, including osmotic balance in the blood, extracellular and intracellular fluids, and resting membrane potential

The well known effect of sodium on blood pressure can be explained by comparing blood to a solution with its salinity changed by ingested salt. Artery walls are analogous to a selectively permeable membrane, and they allow solutes, including sodium and chloride, to pass through (or not), depending on osmosis.

Circulating water and solutes in the body maintain blood pressure in the blood, as well as other functions such as regulation of body temperature. When salt is ingested, it is dissolved in the blood as two separate ions - Na⁺ and Cl^−. The water potential in blood will decrease due to the increase solutes, and blood osmotic pressure will increase. While the kidney reacts to excrete excess sodium and chloride in the body, water retention causes blood pressure to increase.

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Answer 5

Salt equivalent

Salt equivalent is usually quoted on food nutrition information tables on food labels, and is a different way of defining sodium intake, noting that salt is chemically sodium chloride.

To convert from sodium to the approximate salt equivalent, multiply sodium content by 2.5:

mNaClmNa=mNa+mClmNa≈<!-- ≈ -->23u+35.5u23u=58.523≈<!-- ≈ -->2.5{\displaystyle {\frac {m_{\mathrm {NaCl} }}{m_{\mathrm {Na} }}}={\frac {m_{\mathrm {Na} }+m_{\mathrm {Cl} }}{m_{\mathrm {Na} }}}\approx {\frac {23\mathrm {u} +35.5\mathrm {u} }{23\mathrm {u} }}={\frac {58.5}{23}}\approx 2.5}

(see: atomic mass and molecular mass).

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Answer 6

Paul Saltman

Paul Saltman (11 April 1928 – 27 August 1999) was a Professor of Biology at the University of California, San Diego, for more than three decades, and an internationally renowned nutrition expert. He received a B.S. in chemistry (1949) and Ph.D. in biochemistry (1953) from the California Institute of Technology. He commenced employment at the Keck School of Medicine at USC, until 1967, when he accepted the position of provost of Revelle College at the University of California, San Diego, "to bring undergraduate education to the same high level of academic excellence that marks the graduate program at the heavily science-oriented college." In 1972 Saltman was appointed Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs. In 1980, he returned to full-time research and teaching at UCSD. After his death, from prostate cancer in 1999, the Paul D. Saltman Endowed Chair in Science Education was established by UCSD to recognize a distinguished senior member of Biological Sciences faculty for his/her commitment to, and success in teaching science. Saltman was married to Barbara Saltman for over 50 years, and is survived by sons David and Joshua, and five grandchildren.

Saltman's research focussed on the chemistry, biochemistry and nutritional role of trace metals such as iron, copper, zinc and manganese. His approach to nutrition made the point that it is an exact science, and can be accurately measured and tested. He often clearly differentiated between the concept of eating food, about which he noted: "food is not in itself a science, it is a sensual experience required for survival", and nutrition. Nutritional requirements, he maintained, could in theory be provided with total parenteral nutrition. "With TPN feeding all of the nutrients that a human being needs, from the time of infancy to the latter years, one can be maintained alive and well and growing without ever eating a morsel of food or drinking a drop of liquid."

His discoveries allowed for improvements in dietary and supplement strategies to prevent anemia, enhance physical performance and decrease the chance of heart disease. Clinical applications of his research included reduction of free radical damage to hearts, prevention of anemia, enhanced physical performance, and better bone and skeletal metabolism. His findings were of interest to the food industry and he was a consultant to Procter and Gamble, Mars and other food manufacturers. His academic writings are able to be purchased from Chemical and Engineering News, and are also held in the Mandeville Special Collections Library. His 1985 lecture in the Leon Pape Memorial Lecture Series reflected his overall philosophy, and was titled "Science Is With People: A Tribute to Leon Pape".

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Answer 7

Saprotrophic nutrition

Saprotrophic nutrition /sæprəˈtrɒfɪk, -proʊ-/ or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of dead or decayed organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs or heterotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi (for example Mucor) and soil bacteria. Saprotrophic microscopic fungi are sometimes called saprobes; saprotrophic plants or bacterial flora are called saprophytes ( + , "rotten material" + "plant"). The process is most often facilitated through the active transport of such materials through endocytosis within the internal mycelium and its constituent hyphae.

Various word roots relating to decayed matter (detritus, ), eating and nutrition (-vore, -phage), and plants or life forms (, -obe) produce various terms, such as detritivore, detritophage, saprotroph, saprophyte, saprophage, and saprobe; their meanings overlap, although technical distinctions (based on physiologic mechanisms) narrow the senses. For example, usage distinctions can be made based on macroscopic swallowing of detritus (as an earthworm does) versus microscopic lysis of detritus (as a mushroom does).

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Answer 8

Saturated fat

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.

A fat is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of long chains of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-). Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds. They are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen atom. Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated. Saturated fats tend to have higher melting points than their corresponding unsaturated fats, leading to the popular understanding that saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature with varying degrees of viscosity (meaning both saturated and unsaturated fats are found to be liquid at body temperature).

Various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat include animal fat products such as cream, cheese, butter, other whole milk dairy products and fatty meats which also contain dietary cholesterol. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil. Many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage.

The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial. Many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet.

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Answer 9

Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease controversy

Whether saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease is a question with numerous controversial views. Although most in the mainstream heart-health, government, and medical communities hold that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, some hold contrary beliefs.

Medical, scientific, heart-health, governmental and intergovernmental, and professional authorities, such as the World Health Organization, the American Dietetic Association, the Dietitians of Canada, the British Dietetic Association,American Heart Association, the British Heart Foundation, the World Heart Federation, the British National Health Service, the United States Food and Drug Administration, and the European Food Safety Authority advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and recommend dietary limits on saturated fats as one means of reducing that risk.

The initial connection between arteriosclerosis and cholesterol was made by the Russian pathologist Nikolay Anichkov, prior to World War I. Another significant contribution to the debate was made by the Dutch physician (internist) Cornelis de Langen, who noticed the correlation between nutritional cholesterol intake and incidence of gallstones (and soon after, arteriosclerosis and other "Western diseases") in the Javanese population in 1916. De Langen reported on his findings at the conference of the International Society of Geographic Pathology in 1935. These observations were made on patients admitted to the municipal hospital in Jakarta. Consequently, he studied this phenomenon in defined populations outside the hospital. He showed that the traditional Javanese diet, very poor in cholesterol and other lipids, was associated with a low level of blood cholesterol as well as a low incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD), while the prevalence of CVD in Europeans in Java, living on the Western diet, was significantly higher. De Langen's colleague, Isidor Snapper, made a similar observation in North China in 1940. Since de Langen published his results only in Dutch, his work remained unknown to most of the international scientific community.

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Answer 10

Schofield equation

The Schofield Equation is a method of estimating the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of adult men and women published in 1985.

This is the equation used by the WHO in their technical report series. The equation that is recommended to estimate BMR by the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics is the Mifflin-St. Jeor equation.

The equations for estimating BMR in kJ/day (kilojoules per day) from body mass (kg) are:

Men:

Women:

The equations for estimating BMR in kcal/day (kilocalories per day) from body mass (kg) are:

Men:

Women:

Key:

W = Body weight in kilograms

SEE = Standard error of estimation

The raw figure obtained by the equation should be adjusted up or downwards, within the confidence limit suggested by the quoted estimation errors, and according to the following principles:

Subjects leaner and more muscular than usual require more energy than the average. Obese subjects require less. Patients at the young end of the age range for a given equation require more energy. Patients at the high end of the age range for a given equation require less energy.

Effects of age and body mass may cancel out: an obese 30-year-old or an athletic 60-year-old may need no adjustment from the raw figure.

To find actual energy needed per day (Estimated Energy Requirement), the base metabolism must then be multiplied by an activity factor. These are as follows:

These equations were published in 1989 in the dietary guidelines and formed the RDA's for a number of years. The activity factor used by the USDA was 1.6. In the UK, a lower activity factor of 1.4 is used. The equation has now been replaced by the Institute of Medicine Equation in September 2002 in the USA, however is still currently used by the FAO/WHO/UNU.

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