Kongsi federations

The Chinese kongsi federations of Southeast Asia, also known as kongsi democracies or republics, were political entities that functioned like self-governing states. They were formed from the unions of mining kongsi (Chinese: 公司; pinyin: gōngsī), commercial organizations consisting of members that provided capital and shared profits. By the mid-nineteenth century, the kongsi federations were the only states governing western Borneo. The three largest Kongsi federations in Borneo were the Lanfang Republic, the Fosjoen Federation, and the Samtiaokioe Federation.

Commercial kongsis are common in Chinese diasporic communities throughout the world, but the kongsi federations of Borneo were unique in that they were sovereign states that controlled large swaths of territory. This characteristic distinguishes them from the sultanates of Southeast Asia, which held authority over their subjects, yet did not control the territory where their subjects resided.

The kongsi federations competed with the Dutch over the control of Borneo, culminating in three Kongsi Wars in 1822–24, 1850–54, and 1884–85. The Dutch eventually defeated the kongsi federations and brought their residents under the authority of the Dutch colonial state.

Kongsi federations were governed by direct democracy, and were named "republics" by nineteenth century authors. However, modern scholars hold different views as to whether they should be regarded as Western-style republics or a completely independent Chinese tradition of democracy.

Kongsis were first established in the 18th century as the Chinese emigrated to Southeast Asia. They emerged with the growth of the Chinese mining industry, and were based on traditional Chinese notions of brotherhood. The majority of kongsis began on a modest scale as partnership systems called huis (Chinese: 會; pinyin: huì; literally "union"). These partnership systems were important economic institutions that existed in China since the emergence of a Song dynasty managerial class in the 12th century. A hui became known as a kongsi once it expanded into a sizable institution that comprised members numbering in the hundreds or thousands.

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