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3D city models


3D city models are digital models of urban areas that represent terrain surfaces, sites, buildings, vegetation, infrastructure and landscape elements as well as related objects (e.g., city furniture) belonging to urban areas. Their components are described and represented by corresponding two-dimensional and three-dimensional spatial data and geo-referenced data. 3D city models support presentation, exploration, analysis, and management tasks in a large number of different application domains. In particular, 3D city models allow "for visually integrating heterogeneous geoinformation within a single framework and, therefore, create and manage complex urban information spaces."

To store 3D city models, both file-based and database approaches are used. There is no single, unique representation schema due to the heterogeneity and diversity of 3d city model contents.

Components of 3D city models are encoded by common file and exchange formats for 2D raster-based GIS data (e.g., GeoTIFF), 2D vector-based GIS data (e.g., ), 3D models (e.g., .3DS, .OBJ), and 3D scenes (e.g., Collada, Keyhole Markup Language) such as supported by CAD, GIS, and computer graphics tools and systems. All components of a 3D city model have to be transformed into a common geographic coordinate system.

A database for 3D city models stores its components in a hierarchically structured, multi-scale way, which allows for a stable and reliable data management and facilitates complex GIS modeling and analysis tasks. For example, the 3D City Database is a free 3D geo database to store, represent, and manage virtual 3D city models on top of a standard spatial relational database. A database is required if 3D city models have to be continuously managed. 3D city model databases form a key element in 3D spatial data infrastructures that require support for storing, managing, maintenance, and distribution of 3D city model contents. Their implementation requires support of a multitude of formats (e.g., based on FME multi formats). As common application, geodata download portals can be set up for 3D city model contents (e.g., virtualcityWarehouse).

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) defines an explicit XML-based exchange format for 3D city models, CityGML, which supports not only geometric descriptions of 3D city model components but also the specification of semantics and topology information.



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Wikipedia
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Outline of geography


The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:

Geography – study of earth and its people.

Etymology of "geography": from Greek γεωγραφία - geographia, lit. "earth describe-write"

As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches:

Other branches include:

All the branches are further described below...

Regional geography – study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.

Region – an area, defined by physical characteristics, human characteristics, or functional characteristics. The term is used in various ways among the different branches of geography. A region can be seen as a collection of smaller units, such as a country and its political divisions, or as one part of a larger whole, as in a country on a continent.

A supercontinent is a landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton.

A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any specific criteria, but seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are:

Subregion (list)

Ecozone The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a system of eight biogeographic realms (ecozones):

Ecoregion Ecozones are further divided into ecoregions. The World has over 800 terrestrial ecoregions. See Lists of ecoregions by country.



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Wikipedia
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Geography


Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία, geographia, literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word "γεωγραφία" was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of human geography and physical geography. The four historical traditions in geographical research are: spatial analyses of natural and the human phenomena, area studies of places and regions, studies of human-land relationships, and the Earth sciences. Geography has been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and the physical sciences".

Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment. Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns.



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Wikipedia
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Works about geography


This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Works about geography


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Wikipedia
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Surveying


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Geographical regions


This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Geographical regions


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Wikipedia
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Geographic images


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Geographical technology


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Wikipedia
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Geography terminology


This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Geography terminology


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Wikipedia
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Abstract space


Abstract space, in geography, is a hypothetical space characterized by equal and consistent properties; a geographic space that is completely homogeneous. All movement and activity would be equally easy or difficult in all directions and all locations within this space. This concept is useful for modeling or analyzing spatial activity and behavior by limiting or eliminating extraneous variables, such as terrain. For example, if researchers want to study the relationship between culture and trade, they don’t want their model to be overwhelmed or influenced by factors such as mountainous barriers and rivers because these would detract from the purpose of modeling how culture alone effects trade.



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