Outflow channels

Outflow channels are extremely long, wide swathes of scoured ground on Mars, commonly containing the streamlined remnants of pre-existing topography and other linear erosive features indicating sculpting by fluids moving downslope. Channels extend many hundreds of kilometers in length and are typically greater than one kilometer in width; the largest valley (Kasei Vallis) is around 3,500 km (2,200 mi) long, greater than 400 km (250 mi) wide and exceeds 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in depth cut into the surrounding plains. These features tend to appear fully sized at fractures in the Martian surface, either from chaos terrains or from canyon systems or other tectonically controlled, deep graben, though there are exceptions. Besides their exceptional size, the channels are also characterized by low sinuosities and high width:depth ratios compared both to other Martian valley features and to terrestrial river channels. Crater counts indicate that most of the channels were cut since the early Hesperian, though the age of the features is variable between different regions of Mars. Some outflow channels in the Amazonis and Elysium Planitiae regions have yielded ages of only tens of million years, extremely young by the standards of Martian topographic features.

On the basis of their geomorphology, locations and sources, the channels are today generally thought to have been carved by outburst floods (huge, rare, episodic floods of liquid water), although some authors still make the case for formation by the action of glaciers,lava, or debris flows. Calculations indicate that the volumes of water required to cut such channels at least equal and most likely exceed by several orders of magnitude the present discharges of the largest terrestrial rivers, and are probably comparable to the largest floods known to have ever occurred on Earth (e.g., those that cut the Channeled Scablands in North America or those released during the re-flooding of the Mediterranean basin at the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis). Such exceptional flow rates and the implied associated volumes of water released could not be sourced by precipitation but rather demand the release of water from some long-term store, probably a subsurface aquifer sealed by ice and subsequently breached by meteorite impact or igneous activity.

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