Mode 2

Mode 2 is a term from the sociology of science which refers to the way (scientific) knowledge is produced. It contrasts with Mode 1 production of knowledge.

In Mode 2 multidisciplinary teams are brought together for short periods of time to work on specific problems in the real world for knowledge production. This 'mode' can be explained by the way research funds are distributed among scientists and how scientists focus on obtaining these funds. In contrast, Mode 1 is knowledge production which is motivated by scientific knowledge alone (fundamental research) and which is not bothered by the applicability of its findings. It is also founded on a conceptualization of science as separated into discrete disciplines (e.g., a biologist does not bother about chemistry).

The term was coined in 1994 by Michael Gibbons, Camille Limoges, Helga Nowotny, Simon Schwartzman, Peter Scott and Martin Trow in their book The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies (Sage).

Gibbons and colleagues argued that a new form of knowledge production began emerging in the mid-20th century that was context-driven, problem-focused and interdisciplinary. It involved multidisciplinary teams that worked together for short periods of time on specific problems in the real world. Gibbons and his colleagues labelled this "mode 2" knowledge production. He and his colleagues distinguished this from traditional research, labelled "mode 1", which is academic, investigator-initiated and discipline-based knowledge production. Limoges (1996:14-15) wrote that:

John Ziman drew a similar distinction between academic science and post-academic science in his 2000 book Real Science (Cambridge).

In 2001 Helga Nowotny, Peter Scott and Michael Gibbons published Re-thinking science: knowledge in an age of uncertainty (Polity) in which they extend their analysis to the implications of mode 2 knowledge production for society.

While the notion of mode 2 knowledge production has attracted considerable interest, it has not been universally accepted in the terms put forth by Gibbons and colleagues. Scholars in science policy studies have pointed to three types of problems with the concept of Mode 2; these problems regarded its empirical validity, its conceptual strength, and its political value (Hessels and Van Lente, 2008).

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