Dysphemism

A dysphemism is an expression with connotations that are offensive either about the subject matter or to the audience, or both. Dysphemisms contrast with neutral or euphemistic expressions. Dysphemism is sometimes motivated by feelings such as fear, distaste, hatred, and contempt. Worded simply, a dysphemism is a derogatory or unpleasant term used instead of a pleasant or neutral one, such as “loony bin” for “mental hospital.”

The word dysphemism comes from the Greek dys δύς "mis-" and pheme φήμη "speech, voice, reputation". Related terms include malphemism (from the Latin malus "bad"), and cacophemism (from the Greek kakos κακός "bad").

One common use of dysphemism is the disenfranchisement of one social group by another. Dysphemisms are used to humiliate, degrade, and minimize people of whom one disapproves.

A dysphemism is a marked form which expresses the speaker's view or attitude towards the listener or group, as opposed to a form that is typical of his or her speech. Thus marked forms are relative to the speaker and social context. Should the speaker use exclusively intimate terms to address a person (first name) then that would be their norm. To show social distance or to express anger one would use a marked (atypical) form, for example a more formal form of address, adding a title or using the listener's last name.

One kind of dysphemism is synecdochic, where a part is used to represent the whole, such as "What an asshole."

Animal names are frequently used as dysphemistic epithets. By using one, the speaker offends the listener by targeting his or her humanity. Examples include "pig", "chicken", "snake" and "rat".

A speaker may use a minced oath when wanting to swear (interjectionally) for emphasis without offending. The illocutionary act (expressive) is dysphemistic while the locution is euphemistic so as not to offend others.

Abusive language can be used as friendly banter between friends, intended without animosity. This is indicative of close ties, friendship, or familiarity. For example, "Hey, you old bastard! How's it going?"

Ethnic slurs are dysphemisms targeted at those of a particular ethnicity, and may involve an element of stereotyping. Dysphemisms for those of a particular biological sex, religion, political stance, sexual orientation, ability level, or any other personal trait may function likewise.

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