Double refraction

Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends on the polarization and propagation direction of light. These optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent (or birefractive). The birefringence is often quantified as the maximum difference between refractive indices exhibited by the material. Crystals with non-cubic crystal structures are often birefringent, as are plastics under mechanical stress.

Birefringence is responsible for the phenomenon of double refraction whereby a ray of light, when incident upon a birefringent material, is split by polarization into two rays taking slightly different paths. This effect was first described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who observed it in calcite, a crystal having one of the strongest birefringences. However it was not until the 19th century that Augustin-Jean Fresnel described the phenomenon in terms of polarization, understanding light as a wave with field components in transverse polarizations (perpendicular to the direction of the wave vector).

A mathematical description of wave propagation in a birefringent medium is presented below. Following is a qualitative explanation of the phenomenon.

The simplest type of birefringence is described as uniaxial, meaning that there is a single direction governing the optical anisotropy whereas all directions perpendicular to it (or at a given angle to it) are optically equivalent. Thus rotating the material around this axis does not change its optical behavior. This special direction is known as the optic axis of the material. Light whose polarization is perpendicular to the optic axis is governed by a refractive index n_o (for "ordinary"). Light whose polarization is in the direction of the optic axis sees an optical index n_e (for "extraordinary"). For any ray direction there is a linear polarization direction perpendicular to the optic axis, and this is called an ordinary ray. However, for ray directions not parallel to the optic axis, the polarization direction perpendicular to the ordinary ray's polarization will be partly in the direction of the optic axis, and this is called an extraordinary ray. The ordinary ray will always experience a refractive index of n_o, whereas the refractive index of the extraordinary ray will be in between n_o and n_e, depending on the ray direction as described by the index ellipsoid. The magnitude of the difference is quantified by the birefringence:

...
Wikipedia